The lecture today definitely should have came a lot earlier
. Sorry about that, but now its here! Today we do something kind of different for me: A biography. Today on Dom Pedro II.
Top: Maria II of Portugal, daughter of Pedro I of Brazil.
Bottom: Dom Pedro II at fifteen years old.The early years of Dom Pedro II were marked by loneliness and introversion. First, some background. In 1822, Pedro I, Pedro II's father, declared Brazilian independence from Portugal, and Brazilian independence was recognized by most countries by 1825. Pedro II was born in Rio de Janeiro on December 2nd, 1825. His mother, Empress Maria Leopoldina of Austria (Who was actually the daughter of Franz II who was the last Holy Roman Emperor), died a year after giving birth to Pedro II on December 11th, 1826. During his father's reign, Pedro was forced to admit to Liberal demands for increased constitutionalism and Brazil became a constitutional monarchy after these reforms made by Pedro I. In 1831, an event occurred which would shape young Pedro's life forever. In 1831, Pedro I's brother, Miguel I, took power from Pedro's daughter, Maria II, in Portugal, and it resulted in a power struggle in Portugal which divided the nation. Pedro I wished to aid his daughter regain power in Lisbon, and decided to leave Brazil and return to Portugal. He believed that he had no reason to stay in Brazil because of his declining popularity inside Brazil following the Brazilian loss of the Cisplatine War. So in 1831, Pedro I left the country and left his son behind to rule as his hier. There was only one problem: Pedro was currently five years old, too young, in fact. So Pedro enlisted three people to look after his son until he was old enough to rule. These people were:
1. José Bonifácio de Andrade, an influential leader of Brazilian independence and a close comrade of Pedro I. Titled as Guardian of Pedro II.
2. Mariana de Verna, who was given the title of governess, or
aia, of Pedro II. Pedro would see de Verna as his de facto mother and called her
Dadama, which was his original mispronunciation of the Portuguese word
Dama, meaning Lady, as a child. He would continue to refer to her as
Dadama out of affection.
3. Rafael, a former Afro-Brazilian veteran of the Cisplatine War and a close friend of Pedro Senior. Asked to look after Pedro Junior, a charge which Rafael fulfilled for his whole life.
Because Pedro wasn't old enough to rule yet, a regency council was established to rule while Pedro prepared to be emperor. Pedro had a strict upbringing, he had to study for virtually the whole day, with only two hours for amusement. He acquired knowledge with ease, but the constant studying and preparation to become Emperor of Brazil was incredibly strenuous and demanding. Pedro had very few friends his age and little to no contact with his sisters which made him introverted and shy.
By 1840, the regency council was failing in Brazil, as multiple rebellions sprang up throughout the Empire and the government could not exercise authority over their vast realm. Because of the council's incompetence, many began to contemplate having Pedro coronated early in order to restore order in the country. On July 23rd of 1840, the General Assembly (Similar to the British parliament or the U.S congress) declared 14-year old Pedro of age to become emperor. On July 18th, 1841, 15-year old Pedro I was officially coronated as Emperor of Brazil. Almost immediately, order was restored to the divided nation, as Pedro became an authority figure in Brazil.
Top: Teresa Cristina
Bottom: Imperial Academy of the Fine Arts.While Pedro became a figurehead for Brazil, he was still an immature and shy child realistically speaking. A group of high-ranking government officials took advantage of this weakness of his to try and influence his decisions. This group formed the Courtier Faction, and this faction would influence Pedro's decisions early on.
Because Brazil was a monarchy, they needed an heir to the throne, which required a wife for Pedro. In 1843, the Brazilian government was able to secure the hand of Princess Teresa Cristina of the Two Sicilies. On May 30th, Pedro and Cristina were married in Naples. Pedro did not like Cristina, however, and made this especially known. Pedro said she was short, overweight, and not attractive. It is said that he had turned his back to Teresa and that he also needed to sit because of his shock of seeing Teresa. Obviously, the relationship started off badly, but the birth of their first son, Alfonso, bettered relations. Pedro II and Teresa had three more children, Isabel in 1846, Leopoldina in 1847, and Pedro III in 1848. Both Alfonso and Pedro III died when very young, which devastated Pedro, who believed that the monarchy of Brazil could not continue without a male heir. While he loved his daughters, he believed that Isabel, the next person in line for the Brazilian throne, would not be a good monarch. As a result of this, Pedro never prepared Isabel nor Leopoldina for the position of monarch and excluded Isabel from all government discussions. Pedro also had...relations with other women during his reign. He never really liked Teresa and thus wanted to marry someone else.
Pedro, by 1845, was a mature monarch, and was no longer pushed around by superiors. The Courtier Faction disappeared by the end of 1845, and Pedro made his own decisions from then on. Pedro was an incredibly hard worker, woke up at 7:00 A.M and refused to sleep before 2:00 A.M (Only five hours of sleep for this dude), and his entire day was devoted to the affairs of the monarchy and politics of Brazil, and the little free time he had was spent reading or practicing the arts. He also lived a modest lifestyle, ending the tradition of royal balls in 1852 and and lived simply.
Pedro II was also a patron of the arts, once saying, "I was born to devote myself to culture and sciences". He was complimented by renowned philosophers and scientists such as Friedrich Nietzsche and Charles Darwin after meeting them. He was the first Brazilian photographer when he began taking photographs of Brazil in 1840. He set up a laboratory devoted to photography in São Christóvão, and later founded two more which were devoted to chemistry and physics. He knew several languages other than Portuguese, including Hebrew, Latin, French, Italian, German, English, Arabic, Spanish, Chinese and Tupi. He became a member of multiple prestigious intellectual organizations, including the Royal Society, the Russian Academy of Sciences, The Royal Academies of Science and the Arts of Belgium, and the American Geographical Society. He was also elected to the French Academy of Sciences, being one of only three head of states in history to be granted the honor, the other two being Peter the Great and Napoleon Bonaparte (Yes, this dude was that smart). The Emperor considered education to be extremely important to the nation, and believed that Brazilians had to be educated. In order to promote education for normal Brazilians, he founded multiple institutes and academies during his reign. He founded the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute to promote research and preservation of history, geography and science, the Imperial Academy of Music and National Opera was founded, as with the Pedro II School, which served as a model for Brazilian schools throughout the empire. He also supported the Imperial Academy of the Fine Arts, which was established by his father Pedro I. Using his own income, he provided scholarships for Brazilians to go to European universities to study.
Dom Pedro II in 1850.
Pedro had to deal with three major crises between 1845 and 1852. The first was with the United Kingdom. The U.K and Brazil had signed a treaty in 1826 where both agreed to crack down on the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade and ban the trade altogether. By 1845, Brazilian slave owners were still participating in the slave trade, and the British decided to take action. The Aberdeen Act of 1845 allowed for British warships to board Brazilian ships and seize anyone who was found involved in the slave trade. While the conflict with the United Kingdom was taking place, a revolt occurred in the northern province of Pernambuco, named the Praieira Revolt, on November 6th, 1848. Pedro decided to take firm action, he sent the Brazilian military to crush the revolt by March 1849. He also pushed for enactment of the Eusébio de Queirós Law on September 4th, 1850, which gave the Brazilian government the power to fight the illicit slave trade. By 1852, the British accepted that the slave trade had been suppressed, ending the first crisis. In 1850, Pedro, with his allies, went to war with Argentina over territorial disputes and Argentine intervention in Brazilian affairs. For the whole story, check out the lecture on the Platine War, but basically Pedro was able to defeat Rosas and overthrow him. This was yet another victory for the emperor.
Pedro also began to connect the nation using new technology. Using railroads, telegraphs and and steamship lines, he was able to forward Brazilian infrastructure and unite the vast nation using these new technologies.
The Brazilian government was not like most monarchies at the time. Unlike Britain, it was not a complete constitutional monarchy as the emperor could be actively involved in politics and affairs of the nation, but unlike Russia, it was not an absolute monarchy as Prime Ministers were elected and the National Assembly held most of the power. This was a different type of monarchy, one where Pedro could actively contribute but could never make very decision on his own. I guess we will call this type of monarchy a "New World Monarchy". He often cooperated with the Economic strongmen of the country, elected officials, and the public to get involved in the government's affairs. Pedro was not a confrontational man and always tried to cooperate. He respected the National Assembly, even when they disagreed with his ideas and initiatives. Most in parliament supported his roles even when they disagreed with him.
In 1862, Pedro had another clash with the British Empire. The British consul in Rio de Janeiro, William Dungal Christie, sent an ultimatum to Pedro demanding very abusive demands for incidents involving British ships. The first was the sinking of a British barque off of Rio Grande do Sul where the people on the coast took the goods from the shipwrecked ship. The other incident was the arresting of drunken British sailors in the Brazilian capital. Pedro refused to accept the ultimatum and prepared for war. Not expecting the Brazilians to stand up for themselves, the British backed down from the crisis. This conflict resulted in Brazil severing diplomatic ties with Britain in 1863.
Despite conflict with the British, Pedro looked south once again in 1864. The Uruguayan Blanco Party took power in Montevideo in 1864, and the Brazilians decided to protect their interests in Uruguay. In December, the Brazilians invaded Uruguay and placed the Colorados in power once more. The Paraguayans, who were allied with the Blancos, invaded Brazil shortly after. In Mato Grosso, the main theatre of war at the beginning, the Paraguayans were winning against the Brazilians. Disillusioned by the Brazilian military, Pedro demanded to go to the front himself and fight. The National Assembly initially refused, but then the emperor threatened resignation if he could not go. He famously said that if he couldnt go as an emperor, nothing could stop him from resigning and going to fight as a Fatherland Volunteer. The National Assembly ultimately allowed him to go the front. He went to Uruguaiana in Rio Grande do Sul, the next area of Paraguayan invasion. He was within rifle shot, but he survived. Wanting to prevent further bloodshed, he offered the Paraguayan commander at Uruguaiana terms of surrender, which he accepted. Pedro inspired many soldiers in the Brazilian and restored morale in the Brazilian military in Rio Grande do Sul in his visit. When he returned to Rio de Janeiro, he received British diplomat Edward Thornton. Thornton formally apologized on behalf of Queen Victoria and the government of Britain for the conflict between the two nations in 1862-1863. Pedro accepted the apology and resumed diplomatic relations with Britain following the apology. This was a massive diplomatic victory for the emerging power.
For the rest of the War of the Triple Alliance, Pedro was dedicated to the war. He spent most of his time recruiting troops and supporting industry to create more ammunition and naval warships. He was appalled by the war, however. The rape, violence, and and destruction of the war devastated the man. He stated that the war must be fought honorably, and cost what it must cost. Pedro also had to deal with a major political crisis in July of 1868. The crisis began as a quarrel between the Brazilian cabinet and the commander-in-chief of the Brazilian military, Luis Alves de Lima e Silva (Later known as the Count of Caxais). Due to his determination to end the war, Pedro sided with Caxais, resulting in the resignation of most of the Brazilian cabinet. While this was a blow to the view of the Brazilian monarchy in the eyes of the public, Pedro decided it was a necessary evil if he wished to end the war with unconditional surrender. Ultimately, the Paraguayans surrendered in March 1870, much to the joy of both Pedro II and the Brazilian people in general. Pedro refused to allow the National Assembly to erect a massive statue of him in the capital to commemorate the great victory of the war. He instead requested for the money to be used to build elementary schools, which did happen.
Top: Initial Flag of the First Brazilian Republic, notice that it is almost a direct copy of the U.S flag with the only difference being the colors.
Bottom: Dom Pedro II in Niagara Falls.Following the great successes of his reign so far, he would be challenged more and more as he aged more and more.
Pedro II was fundamentally against slavery, an issue for the monarch because most Brazilians owned slaves themselves. By 1870, Brazil was an emerging international power, but the only power to still allow slavery. Pedro decided to slowly revoke the institution so as to reduce the impact on the Brazilian economy. Because Pedro could not end slavery on his own, he would need to persuade or pressure the General Assembly to begin banning the institution. It was frustrating for Pedro, but he was able to find ways to influence the General Assembly's decisions. In 1850, Pedro II threatened to resign as emperor if the General Assembly did not pass a law banning the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. This was the first major victory for Pedro's abolitionist push. He then pushed to abolish the only other way to increase the slave population: Birth. In the 1860's, legislation was drafted to pass a freedom of womb law, but the war with Paraguay caused the legislation to be pushed aside for the time being. In 1867, Pedro delivered his Speech from the Throne, which called for the gradual abolition of slavery. Many criticized him for his abolitionist views, saying that he was trying to enforce his own views and morals upon a nation which didn't want it and many called his speech political suicide. Despite the criticism, he kept strong and kept pushing for the abolition of slavery. Pedro found an ally in the Prime Minister of Brazil, José Paranhos, a fellow abolitionist. On September 28th, 1871, the Law of Free Birth, supported by the Prime Minister and Pedro, was signed which gave emancipation to all slaves born from slave women.
Pedro II always wanted to travel the world, but he never really had the chance to. He was able to in 1871, though for a very tragic reason. Pedro's younger 23 year old daughter, Leopoldina, died in Vienna of typhoid on February 7th, 1871. Pedro and his family then traveled to Europe in March. The first place was Lisbon, where he met his stepmother for the first time since he was as young as a child. Reportedly he cried when meeting her (Not because she was ugly like Cristina, because he was overjoyed). Pedro then went on a continental tour of Europe, going to Spain, Britain, Belgium, France, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, Greece and Egypt. In Austria, he went to his daughter's grave at Coburg. These travels further bolstered the prestige of Brazil and Pedro. Five years later, Pedro and the imperial Family traveled to the United States. Pedro also went with Rafael, who had now developed a deep relation with Pedro. He arrived in New York City on April 15th, 1876, and traveled from there. He went to New Orleans, Washington D.C, San Francisco and Toronto in Canada. Americans loved the man's kindness and generosity. He then traveled across the Atlantic yet again, this time traveling to Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Russia, Palestine, Ottoman Turkey, Italy, Germany, the U.K, Austria, France, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Egypt, Greece and Portugal. The time he spent traveling were the most relaxing periods of Pedro's life, but it also infuriated him. It made him so upset that the other monarchs of Europe were living incredibly easy lives while he was working his tail off.
By 1889, the Brazilian government had changed completely. Before the 1870's/1880's, the Brazilian government was primarily composed of men who had lived during the unstable 1830's, and supported Pedro's position as a source of authority and as someone who brought stability to the nation. By the 1870's, however, these men were either resigning or dying, and new blood was taking control of the government. This new blood saw Pedro as almost worthless, and simply an old man who had worn out his welcome. Added to that, Pedro himself was getting tired of the monarchy, and didn't seem to care so much to continue. The lack of a male heir also disillusioned Pedro, who believed that his daughter Isabel I could not rule the country once he died. This proved to be a major flaw of Pedro, as Isabel couldve been an incredibly competent monarch. His abolishment of slavery was also a major cause for his downfall, as most Brazilians still did not support the abolition of the practice. Slavery was ultimately abolished in May of 1888. Pedro was ecstatic, but his enthusiasm wasn't shared by most of Brazil.
Despite the signs of collapse seeming to be evident, the monarchy actually improved its image greatly in the final years of the monarchy. When Pedro II returned to Europe from his last trip to Europe in August of 1888, he was greeted enthusiastically by the Brazilian population, and there were large demonstrations supporting the monarchy throughout the empire. Brazil's status as an emerging world power was largely accredited to Pedro II, and the empire enjoyed great prestige. The Brazilian economy enjoyed economic prosperity following the abolition of slavery, despite many economists stating that the economy would go into recession after the abolition. The abolition of slavery resulted in many of the elite, who had formerly been rich slave owners, became part of the Republican movement of Brazil. The Republican movement never really flourished in Brazil, only gaining support from rich elites. These Republicans dreamed of a Presidential Dictatorship, where one strongman would control the country, supported by the rich elite. Virtually none of the population wanted the monarchy to be abolished, but the elitist republicans began bribing and pressuring military officers to launch a coup against the government. These officers launched a coup in November of 1889, where they arrested the Prime Minster, Alfonso Celso, and proclaimed a republic on the fifteenth. The people who witnessed the incident didn't even know it was meant to be a coup. Pedro did not even attempt to try and quell the rebellion, despite being pressured to by his loyal military commanders and politicians. When he heard he had been disposed, he simply said, "If it is so, it will be my retirement. I have worked too hard and I am tired. I will go rest then." He and his family were exiled to Europe on November 17th.
Teresa Cristina died three weeks upon arriving in Europe, and Isabel moved away from Pedro while he moved first to Cannes and then Paris. In his final years, he lived incredibly modest, moving from motel to motel in Paris. After catching pneumonia, he died on December 5th, 1891. His final words were, "May God grant me these last wishes—peace and prosperity for Brazil". When his body was getting prepared for burial, a small package was found in Pedro's room. Inside the package was a letter and Brazilian soil. The letter stated, "It is soil from my country, I wish it to be placed in my coffin in case I die away from my fatherland". While Isabel wanted her father's funeral to be private, the French insisted upon an official state funeral. At his funeral were the former monarchs of Spain and the Two Sicilies, the comte de Paris, and representatives from the United States, the Qing Dynasty, the Ottoman Empire, Japan, Persia and multiple members of the French government, including the president. Pedro's body lied on a book, meant to represent his dedication to knowledge throughout his life. In Brazil, the new republican government never gave any official reaction, but the Brazilian public was sorrow. Masses were held, businesses closed, and flags displayed at half-mass throughout the country.
Pedro's legacies are incredible. Following the instability of Brazil following Pedro's overthrow, many felt as if the Brazilian golden ages were during his reign. Afro-Brazilians in particular saw the man as a liberator and emancipator.
. Sorry about that, but now its here! Today we do something kind of different for me: A biography. Today on Dom Pedro II.
