Russian Expedition

Background- Other Wars and Incidents Involving Russia

This will talk about events affecting Russia in the Napoleonic Wars. A separate pres about France, Austria, and Prussia would be done.

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Russo-Persian War (1804-1813)

"Russia by this instrument was confirmed in possession of all the khanates -- Karabagh, Gandja, Shekeen, Shirvan, Derbend, Kouba, and Baku, together with part of Talish and the fortress of Lenkoran. Persia further abandoned all pretensions to Daghestan, Georgia, Mingrelia, Imeretia, and Abkhazia."
-Treaty of Gulistan

The Russo-Persian War was to say a continuation of both empire's policies. Before Alexander I assumed the throne, Emperor Paul had brought Georgia into Russia's territories after a plea from their leader. The same had happened with Persia, where the previous Shah, Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar had occupied Tbilisi and thus Georgia for a short time. That time was notoriously cruel.

Both young monarchs, Alexander I of Russia and Fath-Ali Shah Qajar of Persia were eager to prove their worth and expand their territories. Alexander tried to establish Russian influence in Eastern Caucasus khanates and seize their territory for Russia.


Top: Alexander I of Russia
Bottom: Fath-Ali Shah Qajar

"I'll take the fortress and I will deliver thee to death,"
"You'll find me dead on the fortress wall !"
-Paul Tsitsianov and Javad Khan before the Battle of Ganja.

The new Russian commander on the Eastern Caucasus and its viceroy, Paul Tsitsianov wanted to take the fortress and khanate of Ganja. His pretense was that Ganja was former Georgian territory, which Russia had annexed. Javad Khan, Ganja's ruler had also ridden in Agha Mohammad Khan's invasion of Tbilisi.

During the siege, the legendary exchange of words (after an offer of capitulation) happened. A day after, the Russians decided to storm Ganja. They were split to two columns, one at each gate.

Javad Khan fought in the first phases of the defense. He was killed, however. This event confused his soldiers and the citizens, some still searching Javad for orders. The Russians advanced into the fortress. Some resistance happened, most notably 500 men who offered surrender but were killed due to the immense hate of the Russians.

The capture was bloody. The Russians had 380 casualties. The whole Persian garrison of 1,700 was lost and 3,000-7,000 people were massacred.

Fath-Ali Shah assembled an army of 30,000 men to deal with the capture. However, they failed to reach the fort in time due to bad weather and some rebellions. Tsitsianov advanced to Yerevan but failed to take it. Thus the Russo-Persian War began. 


Battle of Ganja

Russia could not commit many troops in the Eastern Caucasus, as they were often busy fighting with France, the Ottomans, Sweden, and many other nations. This created a huge balance of numbers in favor of Persia. However, Russia had an advantage due to Persia having less superior technology and tactics. The Persians depended on irregular cavalry.

Abbas Mirza, the Crown Prince, led an expedition to take Georgia with the army who tried to relieve Ganja. The Russians were led by General Pyotr Kotlyarevsky. Both were very young (Kotlyarevsky was born in 1782 and Mirza was born in 1789).The expedition of 30,000 men resulted in nothing decisive and merely territorial warfare with several losses for Persia. Mirza tried to seek the support of Napoleon technologically. Tsitsianov himself was killed in 1806 while accepting the surrender of Baku.


Left: Mirza
Right: Kotlyarevsky

Due to Tsitsianov's death, he was replaced as viceroy by Ivan Gudovich. The war soon came to a standstill as the Russo-Turkish War started and troops were moved to the Ottoman front. This included Kotlyarevsky, who would make his name there.

The war soon restarted in 1808 when Russia invaded Echmiadzrin. Gudovich tried to take Yerevan but failed and lost 1,000 men. He was then replaced by Alexander Tormasov.

Persia declared holy war on Russia in 1810. Persia invaded Karabagh in 1810 and 1812, both led by Mirza. During the 1812 invasion, a whole Russian battalion was lost in Sultanabad. Kotlyarevsky was recalled to the Eastern Caucasus.

In 1812, Russia made peace with Turkey and led them to divert their troops to Persia. They won at Azlanduz, destroying Mirza's army. Kotlyarevsky successfully stormed Lankaran but with heavy casualties and he himself was wounded for life.

The war ended in 1813 when Persia heard the news that the Russian Expedition had failed. That enabled Russia to commit more troops, and peace happened in 1813 with the Treaty of Gulistan. Georgia, Dagestan, Azerbaijan, and most of Armenia were ceded to Russia.




Top: Battle of Sultanabad
Middle: Storming of Lankaran
Bottom: Treaty of Gulistan territorial changes

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Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812)

"The Russian troops shall retire from the provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia, but the said provinces can be occupied by the troops of His Highness until the exchange of the ratifications of the future definitive treaty of peace between Russia and the Ottoman Porte."
-Article 22 of the Treaty of Tilsit

The Russo-Turkish War started in 1806 when Ottoman Sultan Selim III, sensing Russian weakness after Austerlitz, deposed the Hospodar (Lord) of Wallachia and Moldavia who were both pro-Russia, Constantine Ypsilanti and Alexander Mourosis. This happened in time with the French occupation of Dalmatia which threatened the Danubian Principalities (Transylvania, Wallachia, and Moldavia; essentially Romania). At this time Russia was still at war with France, so an attack there was possible.

For securing the Danubian Principalities, a 40,000 man army was sent there. The Ottomans soon directed a huge offensive for Bucharest. However, the offensive was stopped at Obilesti by Mikhail Miloradovich on June 2, 1807. On June 18 another army of 20,000 men was stopped at Arpachai by Ivan Gudovich.

Meanwhile, at sea the Russians under Dmitry Senyavin issued a blockade of the Dardanelles. On 22-23 May 1807, Senyavin defeated the Ottomans at Dardanelles and the Ottomans lost 2,000 sailors. On 19-22 June the Ottoman fleet was destroyed in the Battle of Athos after Senyavin retreated. Senyavin concentrated  fire on Ottoman flagships and won, destroying a third of the Ottoman fleet.

The battle caused Janissaries to revolt. They had previously been discontented by Selim's effort to modernize the army, one of Selim's many revolts. On 29 May 1807, he was deposed and replaced with Mustafa IV, his cousin. Selim was assassinated in 1808 and Mustafa died, being replaced by Mahmud II.



Left: Battle of Athos
Right: Selim III

Russia was forced to make an armistice with the Ottomans by the Treaty if Tilsit. Alexander used this opportunity to transfer troops from Prussia to Bessarabia, growing the army to 80,000 men.

When the war continued in 1808, Prozorovsky commanded the army, but made little progress and was replaced by Bagration. Bagration went on the offensive, besieging Sillistria in Bulgaria. He retreated with the approach of an Ottoman army.

In 1810, Nikolay and Sergei Kamensky continued the offensive. They took Silistria and defeated the Ottomans at Vidin. In 1811, Nikolay caught an illness and the offensive stopped.

With worsening Russo-France relations and a war approaching, Alexander had to end the war immediately. He appointed Kutuzov to this front. Kutuzov retreated to Bessarabia.

The Ottomans launched a counter-offensive. Kutuzov beat them at Rousse. However, Kutuzov kept on retreating. Another army led by Grand Vizier Ahmet Pasha was sent there.

Kutuzov encircled this army with the help of the Danube, putting a 60,000 man army hostage. Ahmet Pasha was allowed escape, but it was only for negotiations. The threat of losing 60,000 men was too huge, and soon the Treaty of Bucharest was signed in 1812, Russia gaining possession of Bessarabia.

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Anglo-Russian War (1807-1812)

"If England does not accept the mediation of Russia or if having accepted it she does not by the first of November next consent to conclude peace, recognizing therein that the flags of all the Powers shall enjoy an equal and perfect independence upon the seas and restoring therein the conquests made by it from France and its Allies since the year eighteen hundred and five, when Russia made common cause with it, a note shall be sent to the cabinet of St. James in the course of the said month of November by the Ambassador of His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias. This note, expressing the interest that his said Imperial Majesty takes in the tranquility of the world and the purpose which he has of employing all the forces of his Empire to procure for humanity the blessing of peace, shall contain the positive and explicit declaration that, upon the refusal of England to conclude peace upon the aforesaid conditions, His Majesty the Emperor of all the Russias will make common cause with France, and, in case the Cabinet of St. James shall not have given upon the 1st of December next a categorical and satisfactory reply, the Ambassador of Russia shall receive the contingent order to demand his passports on the said day and to leave England at once."
-Article 4 of the secret Treaty of Tilsit

After the Treaty of Tilsit, Russia was forced into the Continental System against Britain. Russia declared war on Britain on 26 October 1807, after their bombardment of Copenhagen. Russia did not actively pursue war, but merely closed off trade to Great Britain.

On 2 December, when news of the war reached Britain, they confiscated a Russian frigate and a Russian storeship. Both ships carried payroll for Senyavin's fleet in the Mediterranian.

Senyavin himself parted ways with Collingwood on 14 August 1807, most of his fleet ordered to Sevastopol. He had to give up his conquests, as the Treaty of Tilsit forced Russia to cede the Ionian islands.

He and the rest of his fleet were ordered to the Baltics to support in the Finnish War. On the way, he had to anchor in Lisbon on 30 October, which was in huge turmoil. In the next few days, the king would leave for Brazil, and Lisbon was occupied. The British also issued a blockade.

Senyavin maintained his neutrality despite please from Junot and Kellerman, as Russia was not officially at war with Portugal. In 1808, Wellesley defeated Junot at Vimiero, driving the French out of Portugal. Senyavin now faced a large British fleet.

After several threats, Senyavin made a convention with the British to be escorted to Portsmouth and then the Baltic, still flying Russian flags. The fleet was delayed by the British and the Walcheren Expedition. Eventually, they reached Riga on 9 September 1809. Senyavin was disgraced and never went to sea again until Alexander died.



Senyavin

"There shall be between His Majesty the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and His Majesty the Emperor of All the Russias, their Heirs and Successors, and between their respective States and Subjects, a firm, true, and inviolable Peace, and a sincere and perfect union and friendship, so that from this moment all cause of misunderstanding which may have existed between them, shall be considered as entirely ceasing and done away."
-Article 1 of the Treaty if Orebro

There were some minor naval engagements with the British fleet supporting Sweden until Sweden went to France's side in 1810. However, by this time hostilities had ceased, as Russia continued to trade with Britain in 1810. In face of worsening Franco-Russian relations, Russia made peace with Britain in the Treaty of Orebro. On 18 July 1812, Russia made peace with Britain by the Treaty of Orebro, nearly a month after the start of the Russian Expedition.



End of the Anglo-Russian War

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Finnish War (1808-1809)

On 24 September 1807, Emperor Alexander I of Russia sent a letter to Swedish king Gustav IV Adolf, which essentially said that Russo-Swedish relations depended on Sweden joining the Continental System. Gustav hated Napoleon and saw the British as allies. Gustav also understood the system's consequences for Swedish trade. He instead planned to attack Denmark with Britain.

Alexander demanded Sweden close the Baltic Sea to all foreign warships. On 30 December, Russia gave an ultimatum to Sweden. Sweden stubbornly refused, which Russia used as a pretext to war. The Swedish plan of defense was unclear. Most favored a defense in Finland until reinforcements could come. Some wanted a more active plan, either an offensive or some delaying attacks. As a result, Wilhelm Mauritz Klingspor, the Swedish commander in Finland, was sent in with an unclear plan.

The Russians did plan their attack well, carefully mapping the terrain with the help of spies. They also invaded in winter, using the frozen ice to their advantage.They planned to isolate the forts in Southern Finland, then advance to cut off the Swedush army's retreat. On 21 February 1808, troops under Buxhoeveden invaded.

Next, the Finnish War!






Top: Gustav IV
Middle: Buxhoeveden
Bottom: Klingspor

Klingspor only arrived on March 2. He ordered a retreat from the planned defence lines. The Russians advanced swiftly, except at Sveaborg where they had to besiege the fortress. Eventually, Sveaborg would surrender on 3 May. The commander, Carl Olof Cronstedt would later be blamed for the loss of the war. The Swedes under Adlercreutz counter-attacked at Siikajoki and Revolax. They nearly encircled Raevsky at Lappo as well.

However, Nikolay Kamensky decided to attack. He defeated the Swedes at Oravais on 14 September, despite Dobeln winnng at Jutas. On March 13 1809, King Gustav IV Adolf was overthrown and was replaced by Charles XIII. Peace in the form of the Treaty of Fredrikshamn occurred on 17 September. Sweden had to join the Continental System. They also ceded Finland to Russia.

Background and Other Wars  - France, Austria, and Prussia

I'm going to talk about France, Austria, and Prussia together since they are quite related. Austria and Prussia would be quite short as well. I might also talk a bit about the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. So let's start!

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France- Berlin and Milan Decrees, Continental System

"The British islands are declared in a state of blockade.

All commerce and correspondence with the British islands are prohibited. In consequence, letters or packets, addressed either to England, to an Englishman, or in the English language, shall not pass through the post-office and shall be seized.

Every subject of England, of whatever rank and condition soever, who shall be found in the countries occupied by our troops, or by those of our allies, shall be made a prisoner of war.

All magazines, merchandise, or property whatsoever, belonging to a subject of England, shall be declared lawful prize.

The trade in English merchandise is forbidden; all merchandise belonging to England, or coming from its manufactories and colonies, is declared lawful prize. "
-Articles I-V, Berlin Decree.

Great Britain was a very important player in the Coalition, diplomatically encouraging and financially supporting the Coalition Wars. In 1793, Britain financed Austria with 1,500,000 to campaign in the Netherlands against the French Republic. Britain was also last to make peace with France. Peace was made in 1802 at Amiens.

After that, William Pitt the Younger encouraged the Third Coalition against the French Empire. France's plan to invade Britain was botched after the Battle of Trafalgar when the majority of the French Navy was destroyed. It was the British too that enacted first the naval blockade policy against France on 16 May 1806.

As a response, after defeating Prussia at Jena-Auerstadt and marching into Berlin, Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree on 21 November 1806. The Decree essentially called for a blockade against the British. This was the start of the Continental System.

"The British Isles are declared to be in a state of blockade, both by land and by sea. Every ship, of whatever nation, or whatsoever the nature of its cargo so may be, that sails from the ports of England, or those of the English colonies, or of countries occupied by English troops, and proceeding to England, or to the English colonies, or to countries occupied by English troops, is good and lawful prize, as contrary to the present decree, and may be captured by our ships of war, or our privateers, and adjudged to the captor."
-Article 3 of the Milan Decree

On 17 December 1807, the Milan Decree was issued, reaffirming the blockade against the British and sanctioning the capture of any ships that trade with Britain by the French navy or privateers. Britain issued the Orders of Council before that, ordering its trade partners to cease trade with France. All ships in British ports had to be searched to check for supplies aiding France as well. The Milan Decree countered these.

Essentially, it forced nations trading with France and Britain to take sides.


Berlin Decree

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Effects of the Continental System on Russia and France

I'm going to talk a bit about the effects of the Continental System on two major powers, Russia and France. These effects would be linked with the Russian Expedition, especially effects on Russia.

Russia

"The commercial relations between the French Empire, the Kingdom of Italy, the Kingdoms of Naples and Holland, and the Confederated States of the Rhine, on one side, and the Empire of Russia on the other, shall be replaced on the same footing as before the war."
-Article 27 of the Treaty of Tilsit

The most immediate effect was the Lisbon Incident, as had been explained earlier in the presentation. To summarize, a whole Russian fleet in the Mediterranean under Senyavin was tied down for nearly a year and Senyavin himself was sacked after that incident. The Mediterranean fleet being tied down could not provide defenses in the Baltic. The lack of defenses resulted in Anglo-Swedish naval raids, which culminated with the capture of the Russian ship-of-the-line Vselvolod. The Continental System also brought the Finnish War, which split Sweden in two and gave Russia the Grand Duchy of Finland.

Moreover, the Continental System restricted the Russian timber trade to Britain, which was beneficial to both countries. In 1809, Russia only exported 46 loads of timber to Britain, in contrast of 1806 when Russia exported 26,903 loads of timber and planks. The trade blockade stopped other exports such as wheat and hemp. The French diplomat Jean-Baptiste Nompere de Champagny advised for trade between France and Russia in the midst of low prices considering the surplus of unexported goods and that a political alliance should be followed by a commercialone. However, due to the French merchants' protectionist attitude, no commercial deal was made between both countries.

Imports also went down and thus raised in price. Goods such as sugar and coffee from colonial holdings suffered due to the blockade. However, this had little impact on the peasant masses of Russia as the luxury goods were mainly used by nobles and thus caused great unrest with nobles.

"In other days, before adopting such a measure against my commerce, your Majesty would have given me warning..... All Europe views the matter in this light; and already our alliance has ceased to exist in the eyes of England and of Europe....."
-Napoleon in letter to Alexander

All this caused the rouble to devaluate and the Russian deficit to enlarge. Even though the growth of revenue was larger than the growth of expenditure in 1808-1809, it was not enough to control the deficit. In 1809, the deficit was 143,361,514 roubles, in contrast to the 1807 deficit of 26,228,198 roubles. The rise was mainly during 1807-1808, after Tilsit and the start of  the Continental System.

It did benefit some industries however, such as the cotton industry and the beet sugar industry (lack of sugar imports). Beet sugar was a factor in the increase of vodka distilleries as well. Some of the shopkeepers and owners of these industries supported the Continental System, but they had llittle influence compared to nobles and large merchants opposing the system.

The Russian economy adapted mainly by smuggling, esppecially after the issue of "licenses", slightly loosening the blockade. By 1810 onward, Alexander was reluctant to participate in the system, refusing requests from Napoleon of embargo or of tariffs.


Left: Champagny
Right: Vselvolod in combat during its capture/i]